Photosynthesis occurs in the ____.
a. Cytoplasm
b. Chloroplast
c. Chlorophyll
d. Cincinatti
What are the products of photosynthesis?
a. water and light
b. glucose and oxygen
c. carbon dioxide and sugar
d. glucose and water
Wednesday, October 27, 2010
Wednesday, October 13, 2010
Cell Structure Quiz
http://www.northland.cc.mn.us/biology/biology1111/Bioquiz/biocellstructure.html
http://www.cellsalive.com/quiz1.html
http://www.tvdsb.on.ca/westmin/science/sbi3a1/cells/cellquiz.htm
http://www.cellsalive.com/quiz1.html
http://www.tvdsb.on.ca/westmin/science/sbi3a1/cells/cellquiz.htm
Tuesday, October 12, 2010
Biomolecule Notes
http://www.as.utexas.edu/astronomy/education/spring05/scalo/lectures/309L-2BBiomolA.pdf
Basic Molecules of Terrestrial Self-Replication (brief version)
Theory for origin of life by chemical evolution must explain following:
nuclei--->atoms--->molecules--->monomers--->polymers
It's the last step that is the problem: How to make molecules this complex?
First we’ll list the basic monomers and polymers, and then discuss and show
their properties in more detail.
Monomers are comparatively simple, and include:
amino acids (building blocks of proteins)
and
sugars, phosphates, and bases (building blocks of nucleic acids DNA,RNA)
These are not too difficult to make in the lab, and maybe in space (see the
table of molecules found in the Murchison meteorite), which is what led to overoptimism
about SETI.
Polymers, made from monomers, are much more complex, and their origin is the
basic problem in understanding the origin of life. They include:
carbohydrates (used for food and structural materials)
fats (store and transport energy)
lipids (e.g. cell membranes) – these have a crucial “amphiphilic/amphiphobic”
property due to their structure and that of water.
These are important, especially for life today and probably for the first cells
(which may have predated proteins or nucleic acids). But in terms of getting
complex organisms, the crucial polymers are:
proteins--made by combining 20 (out of thousands!) specific amino acid
monomers. Nearly all have a type of symmetry called "left-handed"
(levo-).
Many functions: enzymes, structure, contraction, gene-regulation, messengers,
defense, transport.
and
nucleic acids--these typically contain anywhere from 105 -- 1010 atoms, so very
long. Made up of 3 types of monomers:
a. sugars--nearly all the ones used in life have "right-handed" symmetry.
(No one knows why.)
b. phosphates
Together, sugars and phosphates make up the sides of the "ladder" of nucleic acids:
S--P--S--P
c. bases--these make up the "rungs" of the "ladder", and carry the code for
reproduction. There are 4 types in DNA:
adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T) [replaced by
uracil (U) in RNA] [You DON'T have to memorize the names. But do remember
that these bases are used very much like letters that make words and larger
structures of meaning.
Basic Molecules of Terrestrial Self-Replication (brief version)
Theory for origin of life by chemical evolution must explain following:
nuclei--->atoms--->molecules--->monomers--->polymers
It's the last step that is the problem: How to make molecules this complex?
First we’ll list the basic monomers and polymers, and then discuss and show
their properties in more detail.
Monomers are comparatively simple, and include:
amino acids (building blocks of proteins)
and
sugars, phosphates, and bases (building blocks of nucleic acids DNA,RNA)
These are not too difficult to make in the lab, and maybe in space (see the
table of molecules found in the Murchison meteorite), which is what led to overoptimism
about SETI.
Polymers, made from monomers, are much more complex, and their origin is the
basic problem in understanding the origin of life. They include:
carbohydrates (used for food and structural materials)
fats (store and transport energy)
lipids (e.g. cell membranes) – these have a crucial “amphiphilic/amphiphobic”
property due to their structure and that of water.
These are important, especially for life today and probably for the first cells
(which may have predated proteins or nucleic acids). But in terms of getting
complex organisms, the crucial polymers are:
proteins--made by combining 20 (out of thousands!) specific amino acid
monomers. Nearly all have a type of symmetry called "left-handed"
(levo-).
Many functions: enzymes, structure, contraction, gene-regulation, messengers,
defense, transport.
and
nucleic acids--these typically contain anywhere from 105 -- 1010 atoms, so very
long. Made up of 3 types of monomers:
a. sugars--nearly all the ones used in life have "right-handed" symmetry.
(No one knows why.)
b. phosphates
Together, sugars and phosphates make up the sides of the "ladder" of nucleic acids:
S--P--S--P
c. bases--these make up the "rungs" of the "ladder", and carry the code for
reproduction. There are 4 types in DNA:
adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T) [replaced by
uracil (U) in RNA] [You DON'T have to memorize the names. But do remember
that these bases are used very much like letters that make words and larger
structures of meaning.
Lab 2: DNA Extraction
Introduction
DNA contains the instructions for making you. How you look, what blood type you have, even your tendency to get some diseases. It is found inside the nucleus in just about every single cell of your body. In this lab, you'll break away the membrane around the cell and its nucleus so that you can see your very own DNA.
Materials
• 2 teaspoons (10 ml) 0.9 percent salt water (2 teaspoons table salt in one quart/liter of water)
• disposable plastic cup
• large test tube (or any clear tube that can be sealed with a rubber or cork stopper)
• 1 teaspoon (5 ml) 25 percent mild detergent or dishwashing soap, e.g., Woolite or Palmolive (1 volume detergent or soap + 3 volumes water) (the lab will work without this step, but you will get less DNA)
• 2 teaspoons (10 ml) 95 percent ethanol, chilled on ice
• small test tube
Procedure
1. This procedure will collect some of the buccal cells that line the inside of your mouth. Your cheeks are continuously sloughing off these cells. Swish 2 teaspoons (10 ml) 0.9 percent salt water in your mouth for 30 seconds. This amount of swishing will actually become quite laborious -- hang in there!
2. Spit the water into your cup. Pour this into a large test tube containing 1 teaspoon (5 ml) 25 percent liquid detergent.
3. Cap tube and gently rock it on its side for 2-3 minutes. The detergent will break open the cell membrane to release the DNA into the soap solution. Do not be too vigorous while mixing! DNA is a very long molecule. Physical abuse can break it into smaller fragments, a process known as shearing.
4. Open and slightly tilt the tube and pour 1 teaspoon (5 ml) of the chilled 95 percent ethanol down the side of the tube so that it forms a layer on the top of your soapy solution.
5. Allow tube to stand for 1 minute.
6. Place a thin acrylic or glass rod into the tube.
7. Twirl the rod in one direction to wind the DNA strands onto the rod. Be careful to minimize mixing of the ethanol and soapy layers. If too much shearing has occurred, the DNA fragments may be too short to wind up, and they may form clumps instead. You can try to scrape these out with the rod.
8. After you have wrapped as much DNA onto the rod as you can, remove the rod and scrape/shake the DNA into a small tube containing the rest of the 95 percent ethanol. Your DNA should stay solid in this solution.
9. Show your teacher your DNA if you want credit for the lab!
Questions
1. What was the purpose of the detergent?
2. Was the DNA you extracted from one cell or from many cells?
3. Describe the appearance of the DNA.
4. Why is it important that scientists can extract DNA from cells?
DNA contains the instructions for making you. How you look, what blood type you have, even your tendency to get some diseases. It is found inside the nucleus in just about every single cell of your body. In this lab, you'll break away the membrane around the cell and its nucleus so that you can see your very own DNA.
Materials
• 2 teaspoons (10 ml) 0.9 percent salt water (2 teaspoons table salt in one quart/liter of water)
• disposable plastic cup
• large test tube (or any clear tube that can be sealed with a rubber or cork stopper)
• 1 teaspoon (5 ml) 25 percent mild detergent or dishwashing soap, e.g., Woolite or Palmolive (1 volume detergent or soap + 3 volumes water) (the lab will work without this step, but you will get less DNA)
• 2 teaspoons (10 ml) 95 percent ethanol, chilled on ice
• small test tube
Procedure
1. This procedure will collect some of the buccal cells that line the inside of your mouth. Your cheeks are continuously sloughing off these cells. Swish 2 teaspoons (10 ml) 0.9 percent salt water in your mouth for 30 seconds. This amount of swishing will actually become quite laborious -- hang in there!
2. Spit the water into your cup. Pour this into a large test tube containing 1 teaspoon (5 ml) 25 percent liquid detergent.
3. Cap tube and gently rock it on its side for 2-3 minutes. The detergent will break open the cell membrane to release the DNA into the soap solution. Do not be too vigorous while mixing! DNA is a very long molecule. Physical abuse can break it into smaller fragments, a process known as shearing.
4. Open and slightly tilt the tube and pour 1 teaspoon (5 ml) of the chilled 95 percent ethanol down the side of the tube so that it forms a layer on the top of your soapy solution.
5. Allow tube to stand for 1 minute.
6. Place a thin acrylic or glass rod into the tube.
7. Twirl the rod in one direction to wind the DNA strands onto the rod. Be careful to minimize mixing of the ethanol and soapy layers. If too much shearing has occurred, the DNA fragments may be too short to wind up, and they may form clumps instead. You can try to scrape these out with the rod.
8. After you have wrapped as much DNA onto the rod as you can, remove the rod and scrape/shake the DNA into a small tube containing the rest of the 95 percent ethanol. Your DNA should stay solid in this solution.
9. Show your teacher your DNA if you want credit for the lab!
Questions
1. What was the purpose of the detergent?
2. Was the DNA you extracted from one cell or from many cells?
3. Describe the appearance of the DNA.
4. Why is it important that scientists can extract DNA from cells?
Lab 1: Biomolecules Test
Materials:
Test tubes
Test tube rack
Test tube clamp
Sharpie
Water bath
Lugol’s iodine
Biuret reagent – (CuSO4
and NaOH)
Benedict’s solution
Brown paper
Stirring rod
Food samples
Droppers
Test Protocols:
I. Lipids - Brown Paper Bag Test
1. Label a section of brown paper with the sample being tested.
2. Using a glass stirring rod, rub the food to be tested until a “wet” spot appears on
the paper. With a paper towel, rub off any excess food that may stick to the
paper.
3. Set the paper aside to dry, about 10 to 15 minutes.
Positive Test: Hold the paper to the light. A translucent spot indicates the
presence of lipids.
II. Proteins - Biuret Test
1. Place 2 full droppers of the specimen to be tested into a test tube.
2. Add 5 drops of NaOH and 5 drops of CuSO4 to the tube.
3. Gently shake the test tube.
Positive Test: Biuret is clear or light blue in the absence of protein, and pink or
blue-violet in the presence of protein.
III. Carbohydrates - Lugol’s Iodine Test for Starch
1. Place 2 full droppers of the specimen to be tested in to a test tube.
2. Add 5 drops of Lugol’s Iodine solution.
Positive Test: Lugol’s Iodine changes from yellow to blue or black in the
presence of starch.
Benedict’s Test for Monosaccharide
1. Place 2 full droppers of the specimen to be tested into a test tube.
2. Add 1 full dropper of Benedict’s solution to each tube.
3. Gently shake the test tube.
4. Incubate the tubes in the hot water bath for 3-5 minutes.
Positive Test: Benedict’s changes from blue to green, yellow, or orange when
heated if a monosaccharide is present.
Test tubes
Test tube rack
Test tube clamp
Sharpie
Water bath
Lugol’s iodine
Biuret reagent – (CuSO4
and NaOH)
Benedict’s solution
Brown paper
Stirring rod
Food samples
Droppers
Test Protocols:
I. Lipids - Brown Paper Bag Test
1. Label a section of brown paper with the sample being tested.
2. Using a glass stirring rod, rub the food to be tested until a “wet” spot appears on
the paper. With a paper towel, rub off any excess food that may stick to the
paper.
3. Set the paper aside to dry, about 10 to 15 minutes.
Positive Test: Hold the paper to the light. A translucent spot indicates the
presence of lipids.
II. Proteins - Biuret Test
1. Place 2 full droppers of the specimen to be tested into a test tube.
2. Add 5 drops of NaOH and 5 drops of CuSO4 to the tube.
3. Gently shake the test tube.
Positive Test: Biuret is clear or light blue in the absence of protein, and pink or
blue-violet in the presence of protein.
III. Carbohydrates - Lugol’s Iodine Test for Starch
1. Place 2 full droppers of the specimen to be tested in to a test tube.
2. Add 5 drops of Lugol’s Iodine solution.
Positive Test: Lugol’s Iodine changes from yellow to blue or black in the
presence of starch.
Benedict’s Test for Monosaccharide
1. Place 2 full droppers of the specimen to be tested into a test tube.
2. Add 1 full dropper of Benedict’s solution to each tube.
3. Gently shake the test tube.
4. Incubate the tubes in the hot water bath for 3-5 minutes.
Positive Test: Benedict’s changes from blue to green, yellow, or orange when
heated if a monosaccharide is present.
Biomolecules
Cells are the basic unit of life, and cell parts work together to provide the cell with the molecules it needs to perform basic life functions.
Tuesday, October 5, 2010
Biomolecules Vocabulary
synthesis– production
monomer– a single molecule that tends to stay bonded as a unit and can combine with other molecules
polymer– a large or macromolecule made up of 2 or more monomers
protein– polymers made up of amino acids that perform a wide variety of cellular functions such as those concerning structure and enzymes
protein synthesis– production of proteins from amino acids in the cytoplasm of the cell.
amino acid– one of 20 subunits (monomers) from which proteins (polymers) are assembled.
ribosome– a small, 2 part organelle found in the cytoplasm of cells responsible for the production of proteins
rough endoplasmic reticulum– network of membranous tubules covered with ribosomes located in the cytoplasm of a cell; involved in the production of phospholipids, proteins, and other functions
Golgi apparatus (body/complex)- organelles in animal cells composed of a series of flattened sacs that sort, chemically modify, and package proteins produced on the rough endoplasmic reticulum
enzyme– protein molecules that act as catalysts in biochemical reactions
substrate– the material or substance on which an enzyme acts
nucleic acid– polymers composed of nucleotides; ex. DNA and RNA
nucleotide– the subunits of nucleic acids; composed of a phosphate, a sugar, and a nitrogen-containing base
nucleus– the control center of the cell; houses chromosomes and regulates all cell function
DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid; an extremely long macromolecule that is the main component of chromosomes and is the material that transfers genetic characteristics in all life forms
RNA– nucleic acid containing ribose sugar and the base uracil
replication– process by which DNA is duplicated prior to cell division
transcription– the synthesis of RNA from a DNA template; the making of mRNA from one strand of the original DNA molecule.
lipid–class of organic macromolecules that function in the long-term storage of biochemical energy, insulation, structure and control
saturated fats– a fat, most often of animal origin, that is solid at room temperature and whose fatty acid chains cannot incorporate additional hydrogen atoms
unsaturated fats– a fat derived from plant and some animal sources, especially fish, that is liquid at room temperature and can form additional hydrogen bonds
smooth endoplasmic reticulum– network of membranous tubules in the cytoplasm of a cell; involved in the production of phospholipids, proteins, and other functions
phospholipid– asymmetrical lipid molecules building blocks of cellular membranes that have a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail
carbohydrate– organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that serve as energy sources and structural materials for cells of all organisms
starch– a naturally abundant nutrient carbohydrate, (C6H10O5)n, found chiefly in the seeds, fruits, tubers, roots, and stem pith of plants
sugar– any of a class of water-soluble crystalline carbohydrates, including sucrose and lactose, having a characteristically sweet taste and classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and trisaccharides
photosynthesis– the process by which solar energy is converted into usable chemical energy, associated with the actions of chlorophyll within cells
chloroplast– disk-like organelles with a double membrane found in eukaryotic plant cells that are the site of photosynthesis
monosaccharide– a single unit sugar molecule
disaccharide– any of a class of sugars, including lactose and sucrose, that are composed of two monosaccharides
polysaccharide– any of a class of carbohydrates, such as starch and cellulose, consisting of a number of monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds
monomer– a single molecule that tends to stay bonded as a unit and can combine with other molecules
polymer– a large or macromolecule made up of 2 or more monomers
protein– polymers made up of amino acids that perform a wide variety of cellular functions such as those concerning structure and enzymes
protein synthesis– production of proteins from amino acids in the cytoplasm of the cell.
amino acid– one of 20 subunits (monomers) from which proteins (polymers) are assembled.
ribosome– a small, 2 part organelle found in the cytoplasm of cells responsible for the production of proteins
rough endoplasmic reticulum– network of membranous tubules covered with ribosomes located in the cytoplasm of a cell; involved in the production of phospholipids, proteins, and other functions
Golgi apparatus (body/complex)- organelles in animal cells composed of a series of flattened sacs that sort, chemically modify, and package proteins produced on the rough endoplasmic reticulum
enzyme– protein molecules that act as catalysts in biochemical reactions
substrate– the material or substance on which an enzyme acts
nucleic acid– polymers composed of nucleotides; ex. DNA and RNA
nucleotide– the subunits of nucleic acids; composed of a phosphate, a sugar, and a nitrogen-containing base
nucleus– the control center of the cell; houses chromosomes and regulates all cell function
DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid; an extremely long macromolecule that is the main component of chromosomes and is the material that transfers genetic characteristics in all life forms
RNA– nucleic acid containing ribose sugar and the base uracil
replication– process by which DNA is duplicated prior to cell division
transcription– the synthesis of RNA from a DNA template; the making of mRNA from one strand of the original DNA molecule.
lipid–class of organic macromolecules that function in the long-term storage of biochemical energy, insulation, structure and control
saturated fats– a fat, most often of animal origin, that is solid at room temperature and whose fatty acid chains cannot incorporate additional hydrogen atoms
unsaturated fats– a fat derived from plant and some animal sources, especially fish, that is liquid at room temperature and can form additional hydrogen bonds
smooth endoplasmic reticulum– network of membranous tubules in the cytoplasm of a cell; involved in the production of phospholipids, proteins, and other functions
phospholipid– asymmetrical lipid molecules building blocks of cellular membranes that have a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail
carbohydrate– organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that serve as energy sources and structural materials for cells of all organisms
starch– a naturally abundant nutrient carbohydrate, (C6H10O5)n, found chiefly in the seeds, fruits, tubers, roots, and stem pith of plants
sugar– any of a class of water-soluble crystalline carbohydrates, including sucrose and lactose, having a characteristically sweet taste and classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and trisaccharides
photosynthesis– the process by which solar energy is converted into usable chemical energy, associated with the actions of chlorophyll within cells
chloroplast– disk-like organelles with a double membrane found in eukaryotic plant cells that are the site of photosynthesis
monosaccharide– a single unit sugar molecule
disaccharide– any of a class of sugars, including lactose and sucrose, that are composed of two monosaccharides
polysaccharide– any of a class of carbohydrates, such as starch and cellulose, consisting of a number of monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds
Bellringer 2
What will happen to an animal cell placed in a salt water solution?
a. the cell will shrink
b. the cell will expand
c. the cell will burst
d. the cell will shrink and then expand and then shrink again
a. the cell will shrink
b. the cell will expand
c. the cell will burst
d. the cell will shrink and then expand and then shrink again
Diffusion/Osmosis Vocabulary Puzzle
http://www.biologycorner.com/worksheets/diffusion_osmosis_crossword.html
Cell Transport Vocabulary
Essential Vocabulary:
passive transport- diffusion across a plasma membrane in which the cell expends no energy, the energy for this movement comes from random molecular energy (kinetic energy)
active transport- transport of molecules against a concentration gradient (from regions of low concentration to regions of high concentration) with the aid of proteins in the cell membrane and energy from ATP
diffusion - the spontaneous movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration, the energy for this movement comes from random molecular energy (kinetic energy)
osmosis- diffusion of water molecules across a membrane in response to differences in solute concentration. Water moves from areas of high-water/low-solute concentration to areas of low-water/high-solute concentration. Diffusion of water across a semi-permeable barrier such as a cell membrane, from high water potential to lower water potential
homeostasis- the ability to maintain a relatively constant internal environment while responding to the external environment
cell membrane- the semipermeable membrane that encloses the cytoplasm of a cell, also called plasma membrane
lipids- the class of organic macromolecules that functions in the long-term storage of biochemical energy, insulation, structure and control;ex.fats, waxes, oils and steroids
endocytosis- the incorporation of materials from outside the cell by the formation of vesicles in the plasma membrane that surround the material so the cell can engulf it
exocytosis- the process in which a membrane-enclosed vesicle first fuses with the plasma membrane and then opens and releases its contents to the outside
cell wall- structure produced by some cells outside their cell membrane; variously composed of chitin, peptidoglycan, or cellulose
cytoplasm- the viscous semiliquid inside the plasma membrane of a cell; contains various macromolecules and organelles in solution and suspension
permeable- can be penetrated, especially by liquids or gasses
semi-permeable- allows some substances to pass through while acting as a barrier against others
lipid bilayer- the foundational structure of plasma membranes composed of two layers of phospholipids positioned such that their polar hydrophilic heads face outward and their nonpolar hydrophobic tails are directed inward
hypotonic- a solution having a low concentration of solute or dissolved substances
hypertonic- a solution having a high concentration of solute or dissolved substances
isotonic- term applied to two solutions with equal solute concentrations
equilibrium- balance
concentration- the amount of a specified substance in a unit amount of another substance
gradient- a series of progressively increasing or decreasing differences in a cell
facilitated diffusion- the spontaneous passage of molecules or ions across a biological membrane passing through specific transmembrane transport proteins
passive transport- diffusion across a plasma membrane in which the cell expends no energy, the energy for this movement comes from random molecular energy (kinetic energy)
active transport- transport of molecules against a concentration gradient (from regions of low concentration to regions of high concentration) with the aid of proteins in the cell membrane and energy from ATP
diffusion - the spontaneous movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration, the energy for this movement comes from random molecular energy (kinetic energy)
osmosis- diffusion of water molecules across a membrane in response to differences in solute concentration. Water moves from areas of high-water/low-solute concentration to areas of low-water/high-solute concentration. Diffusion of water across a semi-permeable barrier such as a cell membrane, from high water potential to lower water potential
homeostasis- the ability to maintain a relatively constant internal environment while responding to the external environment
cell membrane- the semipermeable membrane that encloses the cytoplasm of a cell, also called plasma membrane
lipids- the class of organic macromolecules that functions in the long-term storage of biochemical energy, insulation, structure and control;ex.fats, waxes, oils and steroids
endocytosis- the incorporation of materials from outside the cell by the formation of vesicles in the plasma membrane that surround the material so the cell can engulf it
exocytosis- the process in which a membrane-enclosed vesicle first fuses with the plasma membrane and then opens and releases its contents to the outside
cell wall- structure produced by some cells outside their cell membrane; variously composed of chitin, peptidoglycan, or cellulose
cytoplasm- the viscous semiliquid inside the plasma membrane of a cell; contains various macromolecules and organelles in solution and suspension
permeable- can be penetrated, especially by liquids or gasses
semi-permeable- allows some substances to pass through while acting as a barrier against others
lipid bilayer- the foundational structure of plasma membranes composed of two layers of phospholipids positioned such that their polar hydrophilic heads face outward and their nonpolar hydrophobic tails are directed inward
hypotonic- a solution having a low concentration of solute or dissolved substances
hypertonic- a solution having a high concentration of solute or dissolved substances
isotonic- term applied to two solutions with equal solute concentrations
equilibrium- balance
concentration- the amount of a specified substance in a unit amount of another substance
gradient- a series of progressively increasing or decreasing differences in a cell
facilitated diffusion- the spontaneous passage of molecules or ions across a biological membrane passing through specific transmembrane transport proteins
Sunday, October 3, 2010
Bellringer 1
Diffusion is the movement of particles _____ .
a. from an area of high level of concentration to an area low level of concentration
b. from an area low level of concentration to an area high level of concentration
c. across cell membrane unilaterally
d. at the same time
a. from an area of high level of concentration to an area low level of concentration
b. from an area low level of concentration to an area high level of concentration
c. across cell membrane unilaterally
d. at the same time
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